Describe West African kingdoms and empires before the rise of the European maritime kingdoms of Portugal, Spain, and the Dutch, in relation to the following topics:
a) The kingdom of Ghana, origins—c. 1100 CE
b) The Mali and Songhay empires from the 12th to 16th centuries CE
c) Centers of Learning and International Relations in Mali and Songhay
d) International Diplomatic and Commercial Relations with the Maghreb and Iberian Peninsula
e) International Commercial and Diplomatic Relations with Egypt under Ottoman rule Discuss the significance of inoculation in the Enlightenment. Why has each of the following descriptions been used for inoculation?
a) "la plus belle découverte qui ait été faite en médecine, pour la conservation de la vie des hommes. " Encyclopédie (t. 8, 1765, p. 788b)
b) "One of the few dramatic successes achieved by medicine before the twentieth century was the prevention of smallpox" R. Porter, (ed. ) The Cambridge illustrated history of medicine (Cambridge, 1996, p. 130)
c) "Inoculation for smallpox was the beginning of all immunology, one of the greatest and most beneficent departments of modern medical science. " J. Needham, Times Literary Supplement, June 24, 1983, p. 673
d) Inoculation is "constituent in the very idea of preventive medicine" (Achebe, ANTHC 32101 class lecture)
e) Inoculation was "pivotal to the emergence of medicine as a science in the early modern period. " (Achebe, The Idea of Immunity, 2020, p. i)