Answer:
Accounting for both bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and child temperament can fine-tune theoretical models of the role of parenting and temperament in children's development of adjustment problems. Evidence for bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and children's characteristics of frustration, fear, self-regulation, and impulsivity was reviewed, and an overall model of children's individual differences in response to parenting is proposed. In general, children high in frustration, impulsivity and low in effortful control are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative parenting, while in turn, many negative parenting behaviors predict increases in these characteristics. Frustration, fearfulness, and effortful control also appear to elicit parenting behaviors that can predict increases in these characteristics. Irritability renders children more susceptible to negative parenting behaviors. Fearfulness operates in a very complex manner, sometimes increasing children's responses to parenting behaviors and sometimes mitigating them and apparently operating differently across gender. Important directions for future research include the use of study designs and analytic approaches that account for the direction of effects and for developmental changes in parenting and temperament over time.
Extensive empirical evidence leaves little doubt of the importance of parenting in children's social, emotional, and behavioral development. Aspects of parental control, including discipline, monitoring, and autonomy granting, as well as affective components of parent behaviors, including warmth, acceptance, and responsiveness, consistently emerge as predictors of children's adjustment (e.g., Frick 1994; Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber 1986; Maccoby 2000; McLeod et al. 2007). However, our models of caregiver influences on development may be enhanced by considering the role of individual characteristics, particularly temperament, in shaping and conditioning the effects of parenting. This perspective fits with the growing understanding that development occurs through reciprocal transactions between children's characteristics and environmental factors (Hinshaw 2008).
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