The issue of invalidity which is present in this experiment on obedience to authority is: C. placebo effect.
An experiment is a systematic investigation that is carried out under controlled conditions and it typically involves a researcher manipulating an independent variable (the cause), in order for him or her to determine and measure the dependent variable (the effect) through series of observation.
In this scenario, an experiment is conducted on obedience to authority and in it a subject shares his hypothesis on shocks with another, stating that shocks might not be real. Thus, the issue of invalidity which is present in this experiment is the placebo effect.
A placebo effect can be defined as a phenomenon in which an individual experiences a non-specific physiological and psychological therapeutic effect after the administration of an inactive substance, fake treatment or procedure.
In this context, the placebo effect is an issue of invalidity that is present in this experiment because the shocks that would be used when a subject disobeys an authority should be real.
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